Ethernet switches play a central role in modern IEC 61850 substations. They connect protection relays, merging units, bay controllers, SCADA gateways, time servers, HMIs, and many more devices. If a switch fails or behaves incorrectly, the entire communication system can be affected. Because protection and control functions depend on fast and reliable data, a substation switch must meet… Read More »
Choosing the right electrical cable size is one of the most important steps in any electrical job. If the cable is too small, it can overheat, trip protection devices, fail short-circuit checks, or cause voltage drop problems. If the cable is too large, the installation becomes more expensive than necessary. A Cable Sizing Calculator removes the guesswork. It… Read More »
Are you struggling with complex number calculations for your math homework, engineering projects, or electrical circuit analysis? Look no further! Our free complex number calculator makes it simple to perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and even parallel impedance calculations. Whether you’re converting between rectangular and polar forms or handling advanced computations, this tool is designed… Read More »
Voltage drop is a common issue in electrical installations, and if you’ve ever dealt with dim lights, weak motors, or mysterious performance problems, voltage drop is often one of the first things to check. The good news is that it’s predictable—and with the right tool, you can calculate it in seconds. This voltage drop calculator gives you clear,… Read More »
This article focuses specifically on directional earth fault protection (ANSI 67N) for electrical networks with an impedance-grounded neutral. We’ll be releasing more articles soon that explore how directional earth protection behaves in other grounding systems. The goal is to give you a complete, system-by-system view of how earth fault protection works. Stay tuned—there’s much more coming. In this… Read More »
The world of electrical power systems is changing rapidly. As demand grows, renewable energy expands, and reliability expectations increase, the traditional substation—filled with copper wiring, electromechanical devices, and point-to-point analog signals—can no longer meet modern requirements. Digital substations are changing the game. Instead of relying on tons of physical wiring, they use fast communication networks to move information… Read More »
During transformer commissioning, one of the most important diagnostic procedures is the power factor test. This test assesses the dielectric losses in the transformer’s insulation system, which are directly related to insulation quality and integrity. For dry-type transformers, the power factor test helps identify potential insulation deterioration due to moisture, contamination, carbonization, or other degradation mechanisms that may… Read More »
Dry-type transformers are integral to the electrical infrastructure of industrial, commercial, and institutional facilities. Because these transformers power critical systems, regular electrical testing and maintenance are essential to ensure safety, reliability, and performance. This article summarizes recommended electrical tests and maintenance practices for dry-type transformers rated 500 kVA and above, based on ANSI/NETA MTS-2019 (Maintenance Testing Specifications) and… Read More »
Distance protection schemes play a vital role in ensuring reliable and speedy fault clearance on transmission lines. The fundamental idea behind distance protection is to measure the impedance between the relay location and the fault point, enabling the relay to detect faults within set zones. Conventional time-stepped distance protection, for instance, sets an instantaneous Zone 1 reach to about… Read More »
The digitalization of substations is transforming the way power systems are protected and controlled. Virtual Protection Relays (VPRs) are a major step in this evolution. Instead of using dedicated hardware devices, protection functions now run as software on virtual machines or high-performance computing platforms. This shift is made possible by standards such as IEC 61850-9-2 LE and devices… Read More »